1 Introduction

Goats (Capra hircus) play an important role in global agriculture, especially in the developing world, where they play a central role in ensuring food security, rural livelihood improvement and cultural preservation. The adaptability of goats to various climatic regimes and environments with limited resources makes them a central component within both subsistence and commercial livestock systems. The global population of goats is still on the rise, according to the food and agriculture organization (FAO), which is dominated mainly by increasing demand for goat milk, meat and fibre. The leading producers of goats are Asia and Africa, which account for more than 80% of the whole world goat population. Additionally, growing demand for goat products in the export and urban markets further spurred the expansion of the industry (Hanafy et al., 2023; Hurisa et al., 2024).

Despite their resilience, goats are impacted by a range of contagious diseases that significantly constrain their productivity as well as herd health. Peste des petits ruminants (PPR), caprine articular encephalitis (CAE), and foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) are the major viral diseases that still cause extensive economic losses worldwide (Berry et al., 2018). Other bacterial diseases, such as caseous lymphadenitis (CLA) and brucellosis, are also common, negatively affecting goat reproduction efficiency and milk quality (Hasan and Nishikawa, 2022). Gastrointestinal parasites such as Haemonchus contortus are one of the major threats in the tropics and subtropics as they cause weight loss, anemia, and death in goats. Co-infections and the development of novel pathogens also complicate control of disease, arguing for coordinated, species-specific health approaches (Bannantine et al., 2022).

To improve goat productivity, ensure food safety and reduce antibiotic dependence, effective disease control and immune-based intervention strategies are essential. In recent years, there has been increased interest in the immune reactions of goats to diseases. Progress in immunogenetics, molecular diagnostics and vaccine technology has rendered prevention and control of diseases more specific and effective. This research identifies immune markers for disease diagnosis at early stages, improves vaccine efficacy, examines host-pathogen interaction processes, and conducts disease-resistant breeding schemes. This research integrates findings on goat disease control and immunology, evaluates new tools and technologies, and recommends future directions of research on integrated herd health management.

2 Overview of Major Infectious Diseases in Goats

Goats are susceptible to various infectious diseases, which can have a bearing on their health and productivity. They can be categorized as viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections, which are all susceptible to various challenges in their control and management.

2.1 Viral diseases

Viral diseases are among the most important challenges in goat farming because they have the potential to cause huge outbreaks and tremendous economic loss. Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is one of the most widespread viral diseases with a seroprevalence of 30% to 55% in African countries that has the potential to cause huge outbreaks. Caprine articular encephalitis virus (CAEV) and bluetongue virus (BTV) are also prominent viral pathogens of goats with 24% and 35% infection rates, respectively, in parts of Brazil. A novel picornavirus associated with bovine rhinitis B virus has also been determined as a potential etiologic agent of respiratory illness in goats (Yan et al., 2022).

2.2 Bacterial diseases

Bacterial diseases are another major problem in goat health. Mannheimia haemolytica is another common bacterial pathogen responsible for severe respiratory disease, particularly if the animal's immune system is compromised by viral disease. Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) caused by Mycoplasma species is another severe bacterial disease with high morbidity and mortality rates of up to 100% and 80%-100% respectively in some regions. Pasteurella organisms also contribute to aggravating respiratory illness in goats, typically in association with viral infection (Amin, 2016).

Take the example of Mannheimia haemolytica. If goats are infected with viruses and their immune mechanism is weakened, Mannheimia haemolytica will not show any hesitation. In intensive sheep flocks, if there is a flu-like virus infection, Mannheimia haemolytica respiratory disease will spread rapidly in a uncontrolled manner. The flock will begin to cough, will be short of breath, and will be depressed in mind. The sick goats will lose their appetite, their growth rate will be severely diminished, and in severe cases, they will even die. According to relevant statistics, during the peak period of some viral diseases, the mortality rate due to secondary infection with Mannheimia haemolytica can reach up to 30%.

CCPP is also highly damaging. It is an infectious disease caused by Mycoplasma pathogens. In the areas of hilly or relatively closed breeding circles with unsanitary conditions, incidence and mortality due to disease are highly prevalent. In a mountain goat farm, due to poor ventilation conditions, excessive flock densities, and lack of effective mechanisms for disease surveillance, the incidence rate quickly rose to 100% and the death rate exceeded 80% during the outbreak of caprine contagious pleuropneumonia. The infected goats had abnormally elevated body temperatures, difficult respiration, and severe pleural and pulmonary inflammatory lesions, inducing disastrous economic shocks to the farmers.

Pasteurella bacteria also have a tendency to co-infect with viruses, which further aggravate goat respiratory conditions. On a farm in an open plain, after the goats got infected with the foot-and-mouth disease virus, Pasteurella took advantage of the situation to infect. Double infection made the condition of goats even worse. In addition to the exacerbation of respiratory symptoms, critical conditions such as sepsis also arose. Not only did the difficulty of the treatment increase significantly, but the rate of cure also decreased significantly. Studies have shown that if Pasteurella and viruses co-infect each other, goats’ mortality is 2~3 times higher than when they infect individually.

These figures show that the harm caused by bacterial infection to goat health cannot be underestimated. During breeding, we should be specially cautious about the potential synergistic pathogenicity between bacteria and viruses and exert ourselves in prevention and control of bacterial infectious diseases in goats by enhancing monitoring of diseases, improving the breeding environment and other means.

2.3 Parasitic diseases

Parasitic infections among goat flocks are common and significantly affect their production performance and health. The gastrointestinal parasites such as nematodes, coccidia and tapeworms are common in both conventional and organic farming systems, and infection levels are similar under different feeding systems. Haemonchosis due to Haemonchus contortus is a serious parasitic disease because of its high pathogenicity and increasing resistance to commonly used anthelmintics. Haemonchus contortus parasitizes in the goat's abomasum and is very pathogenic. Goats infected with this disease will show severe anemia symptoms quickly because of the blood sucking by the worms. Clinically, the mucous membranes of infected goats are pale, like white paper, and eyelid swelling is especially obvious, showing a typical "eye bags" appearance. The movements also become slow and the spirits are depressed. Due to physical weakness, sick goats eat less and ruminate less, and growth and development cease. Young goat growth retardation after infection is more pronounced, and the weight is significantly lower than in healthy goats, directly affecting subsequent market quality and economic worth. If ewes are infected with haemonchus and pregnant, the health of their own as well as that of the developing fetus will be affected, resulting in a poorly developed fetus and enhanced abortion rate, further reducing breeding effect (Figure 1). Echinococcosis is a parasitic zoonotic disease having an infection rate globally among goats of 10.85% and greater in regions with high altitude and cold climates (Mataca et al., 2022).

2.4 Emerging and re-emerging infectious disease trends

Goat re-emerging and emerging infectious diseases remain challenging to manage and control. For example, discovery of a novel picornavirus inducing respiratory disease in goats suggests potential for cross-species transmission and highlights the importance of surveillance (Challaton et al., 2023). In addition, infection rates as high as 77% in some regions of Argentina validate that environmental factors and seasonality play a significant role in disease dynamics (Rahman et al., 2022). Such patterns validate the fact that continued research and control practices need to be put in place on a global scale in order to mitigate the impact of infectious diseases on goats.

3 Research Progress in Disease Prevention and Control Strategies

3.1 Disease surveillance and early diagnostic technologies

Re-emerging and emerging infectious diseases of goats continue to be a challenge for disease control and management. For example, the discovery of a new picornavirus associated with respiratory disease in goats presents a possible cross-species transmission and highlights the need for surveillance (Challaton et al., 2023). In addition, Trypanosomiasis infection rates of 77% in some areas of Argentina indicate that environmental aspects and seasonal fluctuation play a significant part in disease epidemiology (Rahman et al., 2022). Trends suggest that there is a need for continuous investigation and control globally to mitigate the impact of infectious diseases on goat populations.

3.2 Biosecurity measures and management strategies

Biosecurity interventions and management plans are at the heart of the prevention of infectious disease transmission among goat flocks. Effective biosecurity activities, such as animal movement control and good hygiene, are key to the control of diseases such as Q fever (caused by Coxiella burnetii). Vaccination programs spanning the long term and in conjunction with biosecurity plans can effectively prevent outbreaks and conserve public health through the reduction of pathogen shedding and environmental contamination (Toledo-Perona et al., 2024). In addition, in paratuberculosis prevention, the implementation of biosecurity can guarantee preventing disease agents from entering and being transmitted into and within herds (Pilarczyk et al., 2021).

3.3 Current use and challenges of antibiotics and alternatives

Although antibiotic administration is a traditional disease control strategy, other strategy advances have become increasingly important as antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is increased. Yang (2024) proved that the transfer of passive immunity as a natural alternative has provided promising results towards improving the survival rate of intensively raised dairy goat lambs. Experiments have shown that increasing the success rate of passive immunization has an effect similar to the prevention therapy with antibiotics on reducing mortality and, therefore, can reduce antibiotic dependency and the threat of drug resistance. In addition, vaccination remains an affordable method of disease control, especially to prevention and paratuberculosis control, although vaccine effectiveness and interference with diagnostic tests remain issues (Sharma et al., 2021).

3.4 Correlation between ecological farming and disease prevention

Ecological farming also has close connection with the prevention of goat disease. Ecological farming lays emphasis on natural resistance to disease and reduces the use of chemicals, which is in agreement with reducing antibiotic use and improving animal welfare. By combining ecological farming concepts with epidemic prevention measures such as vaccination and biosafety, the epidemic prevention effects would be improved and more sustainable. Although there is limited special research regarding the interface between ecological farming and goat disease management, the basic principles of ecological farming are in line with the general goal of reducing occurrences of disease and promoting herd health through nature-based and sustainable methods (Arteche-Villasol et al., 2021).

4 Fundamentals and Advances in Goat Immunology

4.1 Structural and functional characteristics of the goat immune system

As in other ruminants, the immune system of the goat is classified into two major components: innate immunity and acquired immunity, which work together to protect against invasion by pathogens. Roest et al. (2013) proved that innate immune cells consist of physical barriers, phagocytes, and acute phase proteins such as ceruloplasmin and haptoglobin, which are indicators of inflammatory response and activation of innate immunity. Acquired immunity is chiefly characterized by the production of specific antibodies and activation of T and B lymphocytes, and is the most significant mechanism for acquiring long-term immunity.

4.2 Humoral and cellular immune mechanisms

Goats can develop strong humoral and cell-mediated immune responses upon vaccination against various pathogens. Vaccination against, for example, Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (Map) induces humoral and cell-mediated immune responses as shown by effective proliferation of T cell subsets and antibody production (Matos et al., 2017). In addition, vaccination against Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis and Clostridium perfringens can induce the humoral immune system and production of specific immunoglobulins. Cell-mediated immune responses such as the production of interferon gamma (IFN-γ) are also critical for the combat against intracellular pathogens such as Coxiella burnetii.

4.3 Development of immune markers and monitoring indicators

Development of immune marker and monitoring indicators is quite crucial in the determination of vaccine efficacy and disease course. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is a reference method for the evaluation of humoral immune responses to vaccination in goats (Arsenopoulos et al., 2021). In addition, acute phase protein variation and cytokine profile variation can be utilized as markers of innate and acquired immune stimulation. These immune markers are of significant application value to monitor the immune status of goats and screen optimal immune strategies (Asadi et al., 2023).

4.4 Mechanisms of immune tolerance and immunosuppression

Understanding mechanisms of immune tolerance and immunosuppression in goats is also relevant to the design of improved disease control strategies. In paratuberculosis, for example, vaccination can modulate the immune response, and vaccinated goats exhibit less inflammatory reactions than infected goats. In addition, the balance between different kinds of immune cells, such as T cells and B cells, maintains immune homeostasis and prevents excessive activation of the immune system from causing tissue damage (De Oliveira et al., 2022). However, the complex interactions involved in immune suppression and tolerance processes need to be studied further.

5 Vaccine Development and Immunization Strategies

5.1 Applications of traditional inactivated and live-attenuated vaccines

Traditional vaccines such as inactivated and live attenuated vaccines have been pivotal to disease control in goats. For example, a formaldehyde-inactivated Coxiella burnetii vaccine has been encouraging in the control of pathogen shedding in goats but additional trials need to demonstrate its protective efficacy. Similarly, a live attenuated Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) vaccine was successfully applied, and in research it has been shown to induce an inactivated immunity in goats, either administered subcutaneously or intranasally (Rooney et al., 2023) (Figure 2).

5.2 Advances in genetic engineering and subunit vaccines

In the last several years, genetic engineering has promoted the development of recombinant and subunit vaccines. For example, a recombinant Haemonchus contortus antigen has shown high immunoprophylactic efficacy in goats, as indicated by reduced fecal egg counts and worm burdens (Minesso et al., 2024). In addition, a recombinant goatpox virus vaccine expressing PPR virus glycoprotein has been developed to induce long-term neutralizing antibodies and offer hope for the use of the "differentiation between infected and vaccinated animals" (DIVA) strategy (Mahapatra et al., 2020).

5.3 Novel vaccine delivery systems

In order to make vaccines more effective, researchers are studying various new delivery systems. For example, Criado et al. (2024) utilized adenovirus type 5 (Ad5)-based vectors for intravaginal delivery, which has been explored for transducing goat mucosal tissue, and represents a potential pathway for immunity to reproductive tract pathogens. In addition, intramuscular versus subcutaneous SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in goats showed that the two vaccination forms have the capability to generate immune responses but the subcutaneous injection could trigger immune responses sooner.

5.4 Optimization of immunization programs and evaluation of herd immunity

The optimization of the immunization program involves assessment of the time and vaccine combination to achieve high levels of herd immunity. It has been proven through studies that combined vaccination using multiple vaccines (e.g., PPR, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, and pasteurellosis vaccines) is possible without reaction, though additional research must be conducted to attain complete protection. Additionally, early vaccination, for example, vaccination shortly following colostrum antibody titers decline, can enhance immune responses and reduce pathogen shedding (Tian et al., 2022).

6 Applications of Emerging Technologies in Goat Disease Control

6.1 Application of molecular biology techniques in pathogen detection

The molecular biology techniques have immensely improved the detection of pathogens in goats, thereby strengthening disease control interventions. For example, Zerna et al. (2021) used recombinant Newcastle disease virus (rNDV) as a vaccine vector to demonstrate the use of molecular technology in the production of a heat-stable vaccine that can be used to discriminate between infected and vaccinated animals, which is of utmost significance in the control of diseases such as peste des petits ruminants (PPR). In addition, reverse transcription real-time fluorescence PCR technology has also been utilized to examine goat virus shedding, such as examination of foot-and-mouth disease vaccine efficacy.

6.2 Multi-omics approaches supporting vaccine and immunity research

Multi-omics approaches integrating genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics are informative tools to improve vaccine research and immune science. These approaches are useful for target antigen and immune response pathway identification. For example, in the study of paratuberculosis, scientists identified differentially reactive proteins in goats that had been vaccinated, and this provided meaningful information about immune regulation and effectiveness of the vaccine (Santos et al., 2019). These kinds of detailed studies are important in the development of highly effective vaccines and immune defense against diseases in goats (Lazarus et al., 2020).

6.3 Potential of crispr and rna interference in disease resistance breeding and immune regulation

CRISPR and RNA interference (RNAi) technologies hold great promise for breeding disease resistance and immune regulation in goats. Though goat research is not widespread, these technologies can potentially target and edit genes related to disease susceptibility and immunity and thus offer a new window to increase disease resistance and achieve disease control in goat populations. Their application is expected to transform traditional breeding programs and improve the health and production efficiency of the goats (Saputra et al., 2024).

6.4 Development of information technology and smart monitoring systems

Integration of information technology and intelligent monitoring systems into goat farming is gradually changing the traditional disease control strategies. Expert systems based on forward reasoning method have been designed to aid farmers in goat disease diagnosis, making it a simple early detection and control system. Such systems emulate expert decision-making based on computer knowledge, and they represent viable alternatives for farmers who lack veterinary facilities. Application of appropriate technologies can significantly improve the efficiency of disease control and thus increase the productivity of goat farming (Murr et al., 2020).

7 Frontier Issues and Key Research Areas in Immune Control of Goat Diseases

7.1 Technical bottlenecks and industrialization barriers in vaccine development

There are a number of industrialization obstacles and technical challenges for vaccine development against goat diseases. Low immunogenicity of inactivated vaccines is one of the key problems. For example, for paratuberculosis, inactivated vaccines cannot effectively prevent infection transmission between goats. Additionally, development of multivalent vaccines (e.g., vaccines for different serotypes of foot-and-mouth disease virus FMDV) requires precise formulation design to ensure protection against different serotypes, which makes production very complex (Noel et al., 2024). Additionally, the vaccine must be suitable for goats of different ages, specifically safe and devoid of side effects in young goats. This was brought forth in the trial of Coxiella vaccine, indicating the necessity of age-dependent vaccine formulations (Martín et al., 2020).

7.2 Challenges in comprehensive control of multi-pathogen infections

Multi-pathogen goat infections are controlled by integrating multiple diseases in a way that more than one disease must be treated simultaneously. Concomitant vaccination against PPR, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, and pasteurellosis has been successful to some extent, but lack of protection against goat pox and sheep pox shows that full immunity is hard to achieve. In addition, the development of vaccines against such goat pox virus-induced diseases with more than one protective function (e.g., sheep pox and goat pox) requires innovative solutions, such as the generation of gene-deficient viruses (Fernández et al., 2022).

7.3 Limitations in basic immunology research restrict precision vaccine design

The lack of basic immunology research has limited the development of precision vaccines. For example, understanding the mechanisms of certain immune responses generated by different classes of vaccines (e.g., live attenuated vaccines and inactivated vaccines) is crucial for the optimization of vaccine formulations. At the same time, identification of specific antigens is needed in order to provoke intense immune responses (e.g., major antigens of Haemonchus vaccine development) prior to being able to devise targeted immune prevention measures (Zamuner et al., 2023).

7.4 Necessity of establishing regional control systems and international cooperation mechanisms

Establishing regional disease control systems and improving global cooperation systems is essential in controlling goat diseases effectively. Transboundary diseases such as toxoplasmosis, which are zoonotic, highlight the need for coordination across borders in vaccine development and prevention and control of disease (Xuan, 2024). In addition, implementation of standard vaccination strategies for foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) control also requires cross-regional coordination to ensure consistency and effectiveness of vaccination drives (Koets et al., 2019).

8 Concluding Remarks

In the past few years, research on disease control and prevention and immunity in goats has been remarkable. Progress in vaccine technologies is particularly significant, especially for the control of such diseases as paratuberculosis and FMD, which have been accomplished. For example, research on paratuberculosis has shown that live attenuated vaccines can provide strong immune responses, wherein vaccinated goats' T cell subsets exhibited enhanced proliferation and inflammatory responses that were lower than that of the unvaccinated counterpart. Double-oil-emulsion foot-and-mouth disease vaccines also outclass the traditional aluminum hydroxide gel vaccines in terms of triggering immune responses, with a universal vaccine system promised. Furthermore, the combination vaccines developed by merging over one disease such as peste des petits ruminants and infectious goat pleuropneumonia have also elicited superb protective immunity without causing side effects.

However, there remain many gaps in information and technical problems. Pathophysiological mechanisms of paratuberculosis infection at early stages are still not completely revealed, hence limiting the architecture of early diagnostics. At the same time, there are inconsistencies in effects of environmental factors and age of vaccination on immune response, hindering the standardization of vaccination procedures. Presently, good techniques for the differentiation of infected and vaccinated animals, to a certain extent, limit the implementation of disease control practices. Moreover, despite having extensive prospects in combination vaccines, protection efficacy against all the targeted diseases (such as goat pox and sheep pox) needs to be further verified.

In the coming years, the use of newer molecular technologies such as RNA sequencing will continue to improve the knowledge of mechanisms of immune responses and provide support to the optimization of vaccines and diagnostic strategies. At the same time, the tailoring of immunization strategies according to different environmental conditions and vaccination ages is expected to improve the quality of immune response and reduce the rate of disease. Apart from this, research on passive immunization as a substitute for the application of antibiotics is also important for reducing the development of antimicrobial resistance and ensuring animal health. Generally, continued research and advancement in vaccine technology and disease control are the path to improving goat health and productivity efficiency.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Animal Disease Research team for support and assistance in data acquisition and data collection.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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